Per esprimere una conseguenza dipendente da una condizione si usa il periodo ipotetico, che è costituito da una if clause (proposizione secondaria), introdotta appunto dalla congiunzione if (se) e da una main clause (proposizione principale). Quando la if clause viene per prima, spesso si inserisce una virgola tra le due:

If you have any questions, please ask your cabin crew.

Se avete delle domande, per favore chiedete ai vostri assistenti di volo.

Caption 17, British Airways safety video director's cut - Part 2

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Nel periodo ipotetico, la condizione può essere introdotta congiunzioni diverse da if. La proposizione secondaria può iniziare, per esempio, con:

When (quando)

per parlare di condizioni certe, che si verificheranno sicuramente

When we finish our exams, we'll go on a trip to the seaside.

Quando finiremo gli esami, andremo a fare una gita al mare. (è sicuro che li finiremo) 

Unless (a meno che)

per porre una condizione negativa, equivalente a if... not

And cars pollute the air, unless they are electric.

E le auto inquinano l'aria, a meno che non siano elettriche.

Captions 20-21, Slow News with Sigrid Alternative transportation

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Notate che in italiano "a meno che" viene seguito da un verbo alla forma negativa, mentre in inglese unless  è seguito da un verbo alla forma affermativa.

Provided (a condizione che, soltanto se, purché)

per sottolineare in modo più forte l'idea di restrizione o limitazione. Si usa spesso con i permessi

You can have a sleepover at your friend's provided his parents are at home.

Puoi dormire dal tuo amico a condizione che i suoi genitori siano a casa.

But for (se non fosse per/se non fosse stato per)

But for your help, we would never make it. (oppure: if it weren't for your help...)

Se non fosse per il vostro aiuto, non cela faremmo mai.

In case / just in case (nel caso in cui)

Then some jeans, of course, a sweatshirt with a hood, just in case it gets cold and there's wind.

Poi dei jeans, chiaramente, una felpa con il cappuccio, in caso faccia freddo e ci sia vento.

Captions 18-19, Parts of Speech Question Words - Part 5

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To wish 

Per esprimere desideri difficilmente realizzabili, sogni o fantasie, oltre alle forme I would really like / love to (mi piacerebbe davvero tanto), si può usare il verbo to wish (desiderare) con queste costruzioni:

wish + past simple / past continuous oppure wish + could + verbo alla forma base per desideri riferiti a situazioni presenti:

I wish Miss Thompson was here.

Vorrei che la signorina Thompson fosse qui.

Caption 71, Between Two Women The Movie - Part 16

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wish + would + verbo alla forma base solo se si vorrebbe che qualcuno facesse qualcosa di diverso:

Hi parents wish he would stop smoking.

I suoi genitori vorrebbero che smettesse di fumare. 

wish + past perfect per esprimere rimpianti, desideri riferiti a situazioni passate ormai immodificabili:

Well, I wish you had thrown the ball to me!

Be', vorrei che avessi lanciato la palla a me!

Caption 28, Jessica and Liz Conjugate the Verb 'Throw'

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If only

La congiunzione if only + past simple (se soltanto/se solo) si usa per esprimere un desiderio, ma anche disappunto o rincrescimento per un fatto presente:

But if only I had my golden ball back!

Ma se solo avessi indietro la mia palla d'oro!

Caption 14, Fairy Tales The Frog King - Part 1

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if only + past perfect si usa invece per esprimere rimpianti riguardo a una situazione passata:

If only I hadn't said those words. (anche: I wish I hadn't said those words.) 

Se solo non avessi detto quelle parole.

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or sentences. The easiest conjunctions to remember are "and" and "or." But there are conjunctions that do more than just connect—they give meaning to a sentence by expressing the time that something is happening: conjunctions of time.

You can easily tell if a conjunction of time is being used in a sentence because the sentence will tell you when something happens or for how long something is occurring. If you can make a "when" or "for how long" question from the sentence, and that question can be answered by the other half of the sentence, then you know that the sentence is using a conjunction of time.

BANNER PLACEHOLDER

In Part I, we learned about when, before, after, while, as, by the time, until, and till. Let's continue today with the remaining conjunctions of time.

Since

There have been ravens here since the reign of Charles the Second,

Caption 9, The London Story -  Tower of London

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And I've been doing that since I was ten years old.

Caption 6, Ashley Tisdale - Thanksgiving Traditions

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Be careful not to confuse the conjunction of time "since" with the preposition "since," which means "because."

As soon as

As soon as your baby is born, you will give it to me.

Caption 41, Fairy Tales - Rapunzel 

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As soon as we showed up, the bears raced off into the forest.

Caption 8, Alaska Revealed - Tidal Bores, Icebergs and Avalanches

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Whenever

You should try to ignore cyberbullying whenever possible.

Caption 4, Bob Parsons - Cyberbullies

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You can listen to Radio One whenever you want.

Caption 56, Hozier - Someone New

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The first (second, third etc.) time

The first time was a very good experience

and the second time is also a very good experience.

Captions 5-6, The Olympics - Teresa Gabriele (Canada)

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That was the third time we were in the studio.

Caption 22, MTV News - Selena Gomez Decodes Her Instagram Pics

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Further Learning
Go to Yabla English and find other sentences (not questions) that contain the conjunctions of time "since," "as soon as," "whenever," and "the first time"—or any time you care to choose! Write these sentences down and practice making questions and answers from the sentences like we did above.

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or sentences. The easiest conjunctions to remember are "and" and "or." But there are conjunctions that do more than just connect—they give meaning to a sentence by expressing the time that something is happening: conjunctions of time.

You can easily tell if a conjunction of time is being used in a sentence because the sentence will tell you when something happens or for how long something is occurring. If you can make a "when" or "for how long" question from the sentence, and that question can be answered by the other half of the sentence, then you know that the sentence is using a conjunction of time.

BANNER PLACEHOLDER

When

When I flew in on the float plane, they were all there on the boat.

Caption 4, Alaska Revealed - Endless Wave

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Q: When were they all there on the boat? A: When I flew in on the float plane.

Before

Be sure to put your mask on before helping them.

Caption 18, Air New Zealand - An Unexpected Briefing

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Q: When should I be sure to put my mask on? A: Before I help them.

After

They have to defend their breed from predators

for up to four weeks after they're born.

Captions 49-50, Evolution - Deep Ocean

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Q: When do they have to defend their breed? A: After they are born.

While

We have to tread lightly while filming.

Caption 40, Nature & Wildlife - Search for the Ghost Bear

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Q: When do we have to tread lightly? A: While filming.

As

We paddle along and we pick up trash as we go

Caption 23, Alison's Adventures - Your Passport To the World (LONDON)

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Q: When do we pick up trash? A: As we go.

By the time

By the time I got to New York,

I was living like a king

Captions 10-11, David Bowie - Lazarus

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Q: When were you living like a king? A: By the time I got to New York.

Note that some conjunctions of time are also phrases, not just a single word.

Until, till

The conjunctions of time "until" and "till" are interchangeable and you may use either word. Many people wrongly think that "till" is just shortened version of "until," but in fact "till" is the older word, in use since the 9th century. The variant "until" has been in use since the 12th century. These two words are unusual in that they express a length of time rather than a point in time, so we should ask the question using "for how long" instead of "when."

She sat until she broke the chair.

Caption 28, Story Hour - Goldilocks and the 3 Bears

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Q: For how long was she sitting? A: Until she broke the chair.

So he sat on a chair,

till he died of despair,

Captions 20-21, Sigrid explains - The Limerick

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Q: For how long was he sitting? A: Till he died of despair.

Further Learning
Don't despair, and by all means stay healthy! Go to Yabla English and find other sentences (not questions) that contain the conjunctions of time "when," "before," "after," "while," "as," "by the time," "until" and "till." Write these sentences down and practice making questions and answers from the sentences like we did above. You can also read more about "until" and "till" on the Merriam-Webster website.

In inglese, per esprimere una conseguenza dipendente da una condizione si usa il periodo ipotetico, che è costituito da una proposizione secondaria (if clause) introdotta dalla congiunzione if (se) e da una proposizione principale (main clause). Per approfondire le if clause e i quattro tipi di periodo ipotetico (type zero, one, two, three) vi suggeriamo di leggere questa lezione in inglese, in quanto qui ci occuperemo del periodo ipotetico introdotto da congiunzioni diverse da if.

When

In inglese, la proposizione secondaria può iniziare con when (quando) se parliamo di condizioni certe, che si verificheranno sicuramente.

Nell'esempio che segue, Kate sta per mostrarci i primi slanci e i primi movimenti da fare per inziare a sciare:

You'll understand when you see it.

Capirete quando lo vedrete.

Caption 47, Adventures with Kate - Nordic Skiing

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Unless

Per porre una condizione negativa, usiamo la congiunzione unless (a meno che), che equivale alla costruzione if... not:

Don't go into the terminal unless you're a passenger

Non andate al terminal a meno che non siate un passeggero

[At the airport] [terminal]

[In aeroporto] [terminal]

Caption 8, COVID-19 - How to Fly during a Pandemic

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Notate che in italiano "a meno che" è seguito da un verbo alla forma negativa, mentre in inglese unless è seguito da un verbo alla forma affermativa:

Brown bears are very quiet,

Gli orsi bruni sono molto tranquilli,

unless they're attacked.

a meno che non vengono attaccati.

Caption 13, Nature & Wildlife - Search for the Ghost Bear

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Provided that

Per sottolineare in modo più forte l'idea di restrizione o limitazione, useremo la costruzione provided that (a condizione che, soltanto se, purché). Questa costruzione si usa spesso con i permessi:

You can have a sleepover at your friend's provided that his parents are at home.

Puoi dormire dal tuo amico soltanto se i suoi genitori sono a casa.

In case

Per parlare di ipotesi poco sicure, possibili o non certe, la if clause può essere introdotta da in case/just in case (nel caso in cui):

In case you forget, it's also written on the platform. -Mind the gap.

Nel caso lo dimenticaste, è anche scritto sul marciapiede. -Attenzione allo spazio.

Caption 41, London - London Transport (A1-A2)

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To wish

Per esprimere desideri difficilmente realizzabili, sogni o fantasie, oltre alle forme I would really like/love to, si può usare il verto to wish (desiderare) con queste costruzioni:

wish + past simple/past continuous, oppure wish + could + verbo alla forma base quando si tratta di desideri riferiti a situazioni presenti:

I just wish we had some wine.

Vorrei soltanto che avessimo del vino.

Caption 30, How I Met Your Mother - Bro on the Go

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We wish it wasn't raining.

Vorremmo che non piovesse (ma sta piovendo).

Quando vorremmo che qualcun altro facesse qualcosa di diverso, usiamo la costruzione wish + would + verbo alla forma base:

I wish you would tell me why.

Vorrei che mi dicessi perché.

Caption 8, Disney Music - Do You Want to Build a Snowman into the Unknown (From "Frozen")

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Rimpianti, desideri riferiti a situazioni passate ormai immodificabili vengono resi con la costruzione wish + past perfect:

He wishes he had never met her.

Quanto vorrebbe non averla mai inontrata! 

If only

La congiunzione if only (se soltanto) + past simple oppure would / could + verbo alla forma base si usa per esprimere desiderio, ma anche disappunto o rincrescimento per un fatto presente, come quando il Brutto Anatroccolo rimase incantato nel vedere degli splendidi e candidi cigni che nuotavano con grazia ed eleganza sullo specchio d’acqua e desiderò di essere come loro:

"If only I could look like that,

"Se solo potessi avere quell'aspetto,

I would be the happiest creature in the whole world."

sarei la creatura più felice del mondo intero".

Captions 36-37, Story Hour - The Story of the Ugly Duckling

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La congiunzione if only + past perfect è usata anche per esprimere rimpianti riguardo a una situazione passata: 

If only I hadn't said those words.

Se solo non avessi detto quelle parole. 

In questo esempio, if only può essere sostituito da to wish: I wish I hadn't said those words. 

Adesso mettetevi alla prova con questi esercizi.

Completate le frasi con le seguenti parole: unless, provided that, in case, when

1. _____ it stops raining, we'll go out sailing. 

2. Take this $50 note _____ it costs more than you expect.

3. You can't get into the safari park _____ you are in your car. The animals are free and dangerous.

4. You can go to the party _____ you're home by 12.00.

Esprimi disappunto o rimpianto usando le parole tra parentesi.

1. Peter spent all his money. (if only)

2. Mike lost his job as a ski instructor. (if only)

3. I remember that girl's name. (I wish)

4. My sisters left for a trekking holiday in a bad weather. (I wish)

Le soluzioni le trovate qui.

When you want to discuss something that somebody has said, it is called "reported speech" or "indirect speech," as opposed to quoting somebody directly. 

BANNER PLACEHOLDER

Imagine you are at work, for instance, and a supplier named Daniel tells you "Most of our new accounts are getting a 30% increase, but I can cut you some slack." This means that Daniel will have to charge your company more money, but he can "cut some slack," meaning he can make the increase not so large for your company. When your boss asks you what Daniel said, you would use "reported speech" to tell him: 

Daniel said most of their new accounts are getting a thirty percent increase, but he said he could cut us some slack.

Captions 29-30, Business English - Difficulties with Coworkers and Contracts

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Note the difference in how the speaker changes from first person "our" and "I" to third person "their" and "he":

Direct speech: Daniel said, "Most of our new accounts are getting a 30% increase, but I can cut you some slack."

Indirect speech: Daniel said most of their new accounts are getting a 30% increase, but he said he could cut us some slack. 

Note that indirect speech eliminates the need for quotation marks. Another primary feature of indirect speech is using a phrase such as "he said," "she said," etc. followed by a description of what the person said. Here is a sample of other verbs you can use to report what somebody said: 

—to tell: 

They told me I was going to lose the fight.

Caption 9, Kate Bush - Wuthering Heights

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—to state:

A spokesman for the Ministry of Plenty stated last night that it will be necessary to reduce the chocolate ration to twenty grams in April.

Captions 12-13, George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four - BBC TV Movie

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—to mention: 

You mentioned you're single.

Caption 10, Conan - Alice Eve Explains Differences Between American & UK Dating

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–to confess: 

You've confessed to assassination, to distribution of seditious pamphlets, to religion, to embezzlement of Party funds, sale of military secrets, sabotage, murder. 

Captions 28-31, George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four - BBC TV Movie

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—to claim

They claimed to be weavers of a rare and especially beautiful and precious cloth.

Caption 24, Fairy Tales - The Emperor's New Clothes

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Further Learning
Try taking the sample sentences above and reconstructing the direct speech. For example, "He told me he'd come to demolish the house." Change that into "He said, 'I've come to demolish the house.'" Now try it with the other examples!

If you are learning English in a small group, have one person state something as direct speech and another person then report what that person said. If John says "I speak the best English in the class," then Jenny can say "John claims to speak the best English in the class." 

BANNER PLACEHOLDER

You can also go to Yabla English and find other examples of indirect speech based on the verbs listed above.